Pseudopus apodus - European legless lizard
The information on this page is based on data from scientific publications, specialized literature, the experience of long-term keepers, and my own practical experience. If you have any comments, suggestions, or questions, feel free to get in touch.
Taxonomy and systematic position
Pseudopus apodus (Pallas, 1775), commonly known as the European glass lizard or scheltopusik, is a large, limbless member of the family Anguidae. Although superficially snake-like, it is a true lizard, clearly distinguished by the presence of eyelids, external ear openings, and osteoderms embedded in the skin. The genus Pseudopus contains only a few extant species, of which P. apodus is the largest and most widespread.
Taxonomically, Pseudopus apodus is relatively well defined compared to many agamid or skink complexes, though some geographic variation exists across its extensive range. For captive management and breeding, maintaining locality data remains advisable, as populations differ in size, coloration, and seasonal rhythms.
Distribution and biogeography
Pseudopus apodus has a wide distribution extending from the Balkan Peninsula and southeastern Europe through Anatolia, the Caucasus, and parts of the Middle East to Central Asia. The species occupies regions with a strongly seasonal climate, characterized by hot summers and cool to cold winters.
This distribution results in a pronounced annual cycle with extended periods of inactivity during colder months. In captivity, successful long-term maintenance and breeding depend on replicating these seasonal fluctuations rather than maintaining constant conditions year-round.
Natural habitat and ecology
In the wild, Pseudopus apodus inhabits open, sun-exposed landscapes with ample ground cover. Typical habitats include dry grasslands, shrubland, open woodland edges, agricultural margins, rocky slopes with soil pockets, and river valleys. The species avoids dense forests and extreme deserts, preferring environments that combine basking opportunities with deep cover.
It is primarily terrestrial and semifossorial, spending much of its time moving through dense vegetation, leaf litter, or loose soil. Retreat sites include rodent burrows, root systems, stone piles and under trash. Basking usually occurs at ground level, often partially concealed.
Morphology and general appearance
Pseudopus apodus is among the largest lizards in Europe, with adults commonly reaching 100–135 cm total length, of which more than half consists of the tail. The body is elongated and heavily built, reinforced with bony osteoderms that give the skin a rigid, armor-like texture.
Coloration varies from yellowish-brown to olive, bronze, or dark brown, often with darker longitudinal markings or mottling. Juveniles tend to show more contrast than adults, with a typical striped pattern when they are born. The head is large and blunt, with powerful jaws adapted to crushing hard prey. Despite its size, the species relies primarily on stealth rather than speed.
Sexual dimorphism and sex determination
Sexual dimorphism in Pseudopus apodus is subtle. Adult males typically have broader and more elongated heads, more massive jaw musculature, and a generally heavier appearance than females. Females are often slightly longer-bodied and more slender.
External sexing outside the breeding season can be difficult, and reliable determination often requires experience, behavioral observation during spring, or morphometric comparison. Juveniles show no obvious sexual dimorphism.
Behaviour and social organization
Pseudopus apodus is diurnal and most active during warm daylight hours, particularly in the morning and late afternoon. It is generally secretive and prefers to flee or remain immobile rather than confront threats, though adults can defend themselves vigorously if handled.
Outside the breeding season, individuals are largely solitary and should be housed separately if possible During the breeding season, males actively seek out females and may display increased activity and occasional aggression. Prolonged cohabitation should be carefully monitored, as females can be stressed by persistent males.
Despite its impressive size, Pseudopus apodus often becomes relatively calm in captivity when kept under appropriate conditions and with minimal disturbance.
Enclosure size and structural design
Due to its large size and terrestrial lifestyle, Pseudopus apodus requires very spacious, ground-oriented enclosures. For a single adult, an enclosure of at least 150 × 60 × 60 cm is recommended, while breeding setups benefit from lengths of 200 cm or more.
Horizontal space is far more important than height. A deep, naturalistic substrate is essential and should consist of a soil–sand–leaf litter mixture with a depth of 25–40 cm, allowing burrowing and thermoregulation. Dense ground cover using grasses, leaf litter, cork bark, stones, and root structures is critical for security. Open basking areas should be interspersed with shaded retreats.
Keeping Pseudopus apodus outdoors can, under the right conditions, be a valuable addition to their husbandry. In a secure and well-designed outdoor enclosure, these lizards can benefit from natural sunlight, fresh air, and a more natural day–night rhythm, which often results in increased activity and improved overall condition. This approach is especially suitable during the warmer months, when outdoor temperatures are stable and provide enough sunshine for proper thermoregulation. It is essential that the enclosure offers both sunny basking spots and shaded areas, allowing the animals to regulate their body temperature themselves. Protection from rain, drafts, and predators is equally important. In cooler climates, such as those in Northern and Western Europe, outdoor housing is usually limited to late spring and summer, after which the animals should be brought back indoors in time to avoid exposure to cold and unstable weather conditions.
Lighting and thermal environment
Although not a typical basking lizard, Pseudopus apodus still benefits from access to bright light and ultraviolet radiation. UVB exposure is recommended to support long-term skeletal health.
Daytime ambient temperatures should range between 24 and 30 °C, with localized basking areas reaching 32–36 °C. Night temperatures may drop to 16–20 °C, and seasonal cooling is essential. Lighting should create gentle thermal gradients rather than extreme hotspots.
A summer photoperiod of 13–14 hours is appropriate, with gradual reduction in autumn and winter.
Humidity and water balance
Compared to strictly desert species, Pseudopus apodus requires slightly higher humidity. Overall relative humidity should range between 40 and 60%, with higher moisture levels in deeper substrate layers and retreat sites.
Misting every one to two days is sufficient, provided that surface areas can dry out. A large, shallow water dish should always be available, as this species readily drinks.
Nutrition and feeding strategy
Pseudopus apodus is primarily carnivorous, with a strong preference for slow-moving or hard-bodied prey. In the wild, its diet consists largely of snails, slugs, beetles, insect larvae, spiders, and small vertebrates.
In captivity, appropriate food items include snails with shell, slugs, earthworms, insects, insect larvae, and occasional vertebrate prey such as newborn rodents or chicks, offered sparingly. Calcium and vitamin supplementation is highly recommended.
Reproduction and breeding
Sexual maturity is generally reached at 3–4 years of age, reflecting the slow growth and long lifespan of the species. Successful breeding is closely linked to a pronounced winter rest.
A winter rest period of 10–16 weeks at temperatures between 5 and 10 °C, with a shortened photoperiod and no feeding, is strongly recommended. Water should remain available. Reactivation is gradual over two to three weeks.
Mating typically occurs shortly after reactivation in spring. In the breeding of Pseudopus apodus, a certain level of competition between males can have a positive influence on reproductive behavior. When managed carefully, the presence of a rival may stimulate males to become more active in courtship and mating attempts, which can increase the chances of successful breeding. It is important, however, that this competition is kept under strict control: ample space, visual barriers, and hiding opportunities are essential to prevent excessive stress or aggression and to ensure the well-being of all animals involved. Females deposit eggs 4–6 weeks after copulation in warm, humid substrate. Clutch size usually ranges from 5 to 15 eggs, depending on female size and condition. Females typically produce one clutch per year.
Incubation and hatching
Eggs should be incubated in a moisture-stable medium such as vermiculite at temperatures between 26 and 28 °C, with relative humidity around 80–90%. Incubation duration generally ranges from 55 to 75 days.
Hatchlings are relatively large and robust at birth and are independent immediately. Juveniles can be housed together if provided with abundant cover, moderate basking opportunities, and frequent access to small, soft-bodied prey.
Annual cycle and overwintering
Pseudopus apodus exhibits a strong annual rhythm driven by seasonal temperature changes. Winter dormancy is essential for long-term health and reproductive success and should not be omitted in adult animals. Juveniles may experience shorter or milder cooling periods.
Longevity and breeding significance
Pseudopus apodus is a long-lived species, with captive lifespans of 30 years or more reported. Due to its size, longevity, and specific environmental needs, it is best suited for experienced keepers. Responsible captive breeding, proper documentation, and welfare-focused husbandry play an important role in reducing pressure on wild populations.
